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Scientific report writing

Scientific report writing requires the use of certain techniques and conventions that are detailed, strict and not always easy to master. The main aim of a report is to provide precise information about a practical investigation, for example, an experiment or series of experiments, so that the reader can understand it and duplicate it if necessary. Certain conventions of writing (for example, section headings) have been more or less universally adopted, and most major scientific publications adhere to these rules.

• the relevant Australian learned society (for example, the Australian Institute of Physics);
• the leading Australian primary serial in that field (for example, the Australian Journal of Chemistry). Such societies and serials usually publish 'Instructions To Authors' that are generally found in the first or last pages of the serial or proceedings of the learned society;
• the format provided to you by the lecturer (or coordinator) of the relevant unit or subject.
  

If in doubt, you should always consult the unit or subject coordinator prior
to writing a designated scientific report.

Style

It is customary for reports to be written in the third person or the 'scientific passive', for example, instead of writing 'I saw', one writes 'it was observed'; rather than, 'I think that ...' one writes 'it could be stated that ...' and so on.

Format

The format detailed here reflects some of the more common conventions used in various scientific disciplines.

In the guide that follows, sections and headings, are set out as they are usually set out in a report.

Title of the report

It is usual to write the title as one phrase or sentence without inverted commas or underlining and with only the first letter a capital. Other words in the title do not begin with capital letters.

The title should appear in the centre of the page. A good title is brief and informative. Titles should not exceed 10 or 12 words, and they should reveal the content of the study. Many titles take one of these two forms:

1. Y as a function of X (for example, The incidence of sunburn in different latitudes)

2. The effect of X upon Y (for example, The effect of phosphate on cabbage yield)
   

In both cases Y refers to the dependent variable (for example, the behaviour) being studied and X refers to the independent variable(s) being manipulated (that is, the variable being measured).

Abstract

This section is a brief summary of the entire report, and should cover something from each section of the report: the reason for undertaking the research, the chief aspects of method, the major results and conclusions should all be included. The abstract follows immediately after the title of the report and has a maximum length of 200 words. Researchers generally scan the titles and abstracts of papers prior to requesting a copy of the full article from the author so the summary should make sense if it is extracted from the report. (Albert Einstein holds the record for the shortest scientific abstract: e = mc².)

Introduction

This section should contain a brief history of the research problem with appropriate references to the relevant literature and the purpose of the study. The introduction should also explain whether the study is an extension of a previous one, or whether a completely new hypothesis is to be tested. The introduction is usually structured to flow from a statement of the broad problem or question being examined to the specific aims of the particular study being reported. The final section of the introduction generally includes a list of all the hypotheses being tested in the study. The results of the current study are not to be referred to in the introduction.

Materials and methods

This section should be precise and detailed enough to allow the reader to perform the same experiment or series of experiments. The subsections of Materials And Methods should include:

• Materials (or Chemicals)
  All specific materials and/or chemicals used and their source(s) should be stated. General statements such as 'All other chemicals were of analytical grade' are acceptable.
• Subjects (behavioural, social and medical sciences) or Animals (zoology and experimental medical experiments) or Species (zoology and botany).
  State the source, number and sex of human subjects, species of non-human subjects and plants. If the subjects are grouped, the criteria for the grouping should be specified (for example, by age, sex, height, weight, and treatment). Any control group should be described in detail.
• Procedure (or Experimental method)
  Include all important aspects such as the number of trials per experimental session and instructions given to human subjects or the treatments of non-human subjects and plants. For chemical or physical studies, include document reaction volumes, temperatures, voltage, etc. Describe the apparatus used. Include illustrations where necessary. The latter should carry a title (or legend) and a figure number (see Results section). Copies of questionnaires and tests should be included in the Appendices.
• Data analysis
  Raw experimental data is often transformed into more meaningful and simple forms using mathematical equations (usually with the aid of a computer). The basic mathematical theory behind such transformations or the computer program used should be documented and suitably referenced. Statistical tests are used to determine whether mean values are significantly different from each other. When using inferential statistics to analyse the data, a clear statement should be given of the inferential test chosen and justification for its use. A statement reflecting the meaning of derived probability values should be presented. For example, the most common and simple statistical test for comparing two means (or averages) is the t-test. A P value of less than 0.05 is classed as statistically significant. This latter statement is generally abbreviated to 'P < 0.05 was classed as statistically significant'.

Results

Data derived from an experiment or series of experiments is the basis of a scientific report or paper. The data may be presented in the form of graphs or tables which may include results of statistical tests if applied to evaluate the data. Raw data,that is, individual values, should be placed in the Appendix and only referred to in results.

Tables are an easy and neat way of summarising the results. Tables should stand alone, that is, the reader should be able to understand the contents of the table without referring to the Materials And Methods section. Generally, tables have the following features:

• a descriptive title (or legend) identifying the results being presented and how they were derived (that is, in what sort of study). The legends attached to tables and figures should be detailed enough for the table or figure to be intelligible if detached from the report.
• column headings which are exact and (where appropriate) scientific units of measurement included under the column headings.
• abbreviations used within the table should be defined in footnotes immediately under the table.
• where the results of statistical tests are included, the type of test used should be included as a footnote to the table. Generally, an asterix (*) or a similar symbol is placed next to a value which is statistically significant different from the control value for a particular measurement. The level of significance is stated as a footnote to the table (for example *, P < 0.01). Both the type of statistical test and the level of significance may form a single footnote (for example,*, P < 0.01, t-test).
• the type and number of subjects (if applicable) used must be specified. By convention, a column referring to the number of experiments or subjects is headed "n".
• tables should be numbered (Table 1, Table 2) in order of appearance within the text.

An alternative or additional way of presenting data is in the form of line graphs, bar-charts, pie-charts, etc. Graphs, charts and illustrations are referred to as 'figures' (for example, Fig. 1) in the text of the report. All figures should be numbered in order of appearance in the text. As a general rule, data presented in tabular form should not be duplicated as a figure but if tabulated data is derived from graphs, then such graphs may then be included. For example, Table 1 may summarise maximum and minimum values whereas Figure 1 may show the graph from which the values were obtained. Whether they are hand-drawn or computer-generated, graphs, bar-charts or pie-charts should have the following features:

• a full title (similar to those used on tables);
• clearly labelled axes and scientific units of measurements. For example, the x and y axes for a graph of height versus age would be: Age (yrs) and Height (cm).
• avoid the use of colour in figures. Although some newer scientific journals use colour, most still use black and white printing. Thus, all symbols and lines on graphs should be in black and white (., Δ, û).
• statistics and abbreviations should be presented as for tables.

Discussion

This is the most difficult section of a report to write and requires considerable thought and care. Essentially it is a consideration of the results obtained in the study, guided by any statistical tests used, indicating whether the hypotheses tested are considered true or are to be rejected.

This is best thought of in three steps: the main results must be very briefly summarised; the procedure must be critically assessed and weaknesses noted; and a final evaluation of the results made in terms of the design, leading to a final judgment concerning the hypotheses being tested. The discussion can only refer to results which are presented in the results section. Any detailed results which only appear in the appendixes cannot be discussed.

Evaluation of the results should include reference to other research with indications as to whether or not the current findings are in agreement with other findings (that is, reference is made to the introduction). The main conclusions reached should be summarised at the end of the discussion. Suggestions for follow-up research can also be given.

References

When writing scientific papers, the way in which references are cited in the texts and are listed at the end of a paper must be in accordance with the rules of the relevant learned society or with the practice of the leading serial. Consult your lecturers for their requirements.

All references used in the report, but no others, should be listed here. A strict alphabetical listing by author is followed, according to the Harvard (author-date) system.
OR

Number the references using the Vancouver system, for example,

Jenson (3) reported the reaction ..., or
Jenson ³ reported the reaction ...
Einstein et al. (5) showed that.....

If the reference is not associated directly with an author or group of authors, then place the reference number at the end of the sentence, for example,

The weather on Mars is rather cold (7).

Full references are listed in numerical order at the end of the assignment.

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